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In this paper, we study the importance of context in predicting the citation worthiness of sentences in scholarly articles. We formulate this problem as a sequence labeling task solved using a hierarchical BiLSTM model. We contribute a new benchmark dataset containing over two million sentences and their corresponding labels. We preserve the sentence order in this dataset and perform document-level train/test splits, which importantly allows incorporating contextual information in the modeling process. We evaluate the proposed approach on three benchmark datasets. Our results quantify the benefits of using context and contextual embeddings for citation worthiness. Lastly, through error analysis, we provide insights into cases where context plays an essential role in predicting citation worthiness.

NAACL 2021

On the Use of Context for Predicting Citation Worthiness of Sentences in Scholarly Articles

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2021 Annual Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics.

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This work presents an information-theoretic operationalisation of cross-linguistic non-arbitrariness. It is not a new idea that there are small, cross-linguistic associations between the forms and meanings of words. For instance, it has been claimed (Blasi et al., 2016) that the word for "tongue" is more likely than chance to contain the phone [l]. By controlling for the influence of language family and geographic proximity within a very large concept-aligned, cross-lingual lexicon, we extend methods previously used to detect within language non-arbitrariness (Pimentel et al., 2019) to measure cross-linguistic associations. We find that there is a significant effect of non-arbitrariness, but it is unsurprisingly small (less than 0.5% on average according to our information-theoretic estimate). We also provide a concept-level analysis which shows that a quarter of the concepts considered in our work exhibit a significant level of cross-linguistic non-arbitrariness. In sum, the paper provides new methods to detect cross-linguistic associations at scale, and confirms their effects are minor.

Finding Concept-specific Biases in Form--Meaning Associations

Historical linguists have identified regularities in the process of historic sound change. The comparative method utilizes those regularities to reconstruct proto-words based on observed forms in daughter languages. Can this process be efficiently automated? We address the task of proto-word reconstruction, in which the model is exposed to cognates in contemporary daughter languages, and has to predict the proto word in the ancestor language. We provide a novel dataset for this task, encompassing over 8,000 comparative entries, and show that neural sequence models outperform conventional methods applied to this task so far. Error analysis reveals variability in the ability of neural model to capture different phonological changes, correlating with the complexity of the changes. Analysis of learned embeddings reveals the models learn phonologically meaningful generalizations, corresponding to well-attested phonological shifts documented by historical linguistics.

Ab Antiquo: Neural Proto-language Reconstruction

The mapping of lexical meanings to wordforms is a major feature of natural languages. While usage pressures might assign short words to frequent meanings (Zipf's law of abbreviation), the need for a productive and open-ended vocabulary, local constraints on sequences of symbols, and various other factors all shape the lexicons of the world's languages. Despite their importance in shaping lexical structure, the relative contributions of these factors have not been fully quantified. Taking a coding-theoretic view of the lexicon and making use of a novel generative statistical model, we define upper bounds for the compressibility of the lexicon under various constraints. Examining corpora from 7 typologically diverse languages, we use those upper bounds to quantify the lexicon's optimality and to explore the relative costs of major constraints on natural codes. We find that (compositional) morphology and graphotactics can sufficiently account for most of the complexity of natural codes -- as measured by code length.

How (Non-)Optimal is the Lexicon?

The complexity loss paradox, which posits that individuals suffering from disease exhibit surprisingly predictable behavioral dynamics, has been observed in a variety of both human and animal physiological systems. The recent advent of online text-based therapy presents a new opportunity to analyze the complexity loss paradox in a novel operationalization: linguistic complexity loss in text-based therapy conversations.

Linguistic Complexity Loss in Text-Based Therapy

Lexical complexity is a highly subjective notion, yet this factor is often neglected in lexical simplification and readability systems which use a "one-size-fits-all" approach. In this paper, we investigate which aspects contribute to the notion of lexical complexity in various groups of readers, focusing on native and non-native speakers of English, and how the notion of complexity changes depending on the proficiency level of a non-native reader. To facilitate reproducibility of our approach and foster further research into these aspects, we release a dataset of complex words annotated by readers with different backgrounds.

Word Complexity is in the Eye of the Beholder

We investigate grounded language learning through real-world data, by modelling a teacher-learner dynamics through the natural interactions occurring between users and search engines; in particular, we explore the emergence of semantic generalization from unsupervised dense representations outside of synthetic environments. A grounding domain, a denotation function and a composition function are learned from user data only. We show how the resulting semantics for noun phrases exhibits compositional properties while being fully learnable without any explicit labelling. We benchmark our grounded semantics on compositionality and zero-shot inference tasks, and we show that it provides better results and better generalizations than SOTA non-grounded models, such as word2vec and BERT.

Language in a (Search) Box: Grounding Language Learning in Real-World Human-Machine Interaction

While neural networks produce state-of-the-art performance in several NLP tasks, they generally depend heavily on lexicalized information, which transfer poorly between domains. We present a combination of two strategies to mitigate this dependence on lexicalized information in fact verification tasks. We present a data distillation technique for delexicalization, which we then combine with a model distillation method to prevent aggressive data distillation. We show that by using our solution, not only does the performance of an existing state-of-the-art model remain at par with that of the model trained on a fully lexicalized data, but it also performs better than it when tested out of domain. We show that the technique we present encourages models to extract transferable facts from a given fact verification dataset.

Data and Model Distillation as a Solution for Domain-transferable Fact Verification

Coreference resolution is an important component in analyzing narrative text from administrative data (e.g., clinical or police sources).

Adapting Coreference Resolution for Processing Violent Death Narratives

In human-level NLP tasks, such as predicting mental health, personality, or demographics, the number of observations is often smaller than the standard 768+ hidden state sizes of each layer within modern transformer-based language models, limiting the ability to effectively leverage transformers. Here, we provide a systematic study on the role of dimension reduction methods (principal components analysis, factorization techniques, or multi-layer auto-encoders) as well as the dimensionality of embedding vectors and sample sizes as a function of predictive performance. We first find that fine-tuning large models with a limited amount of data pose a significant difficulty which can be overcome with a pre-trained dimension reduction regime. RoBERTa consistently achieves top performance in human-level tasks, with PCA giving benefit over other reduction methods in better handling users that write longer texts. Finally, we observe that a majority of the tasks achieve results comparable to the best performance with just 1/12 of the embedding dimension.

Empirical Evaluation of Pre-trained Transformers for Human-Level NLP: The Role of Sample Size and Dimensionality

The COVID-19 pandemic has spawned a diverse body of scientific literature that is challenging to navigate, stimulating interest in automated tools to help find useful knowledge. We pursue the construction of a knowledge base (KB) of mechanisms -- a fundamental concept across the sciences, which encompasses activities, functions and causal relations, ranging from cellular processes to economic impacts. We extract this information from the natural language of scientific papers by developing a broad, unified schema that strikes a balance between relevance and breadth. We annotate a dataset of mechanisms with our schema and train a model to extract mechanism relations from papers. Our experiments demonstrate the utility of our KB in supporting interdisciplinary scientific search over COVID-19 literature, outperforming the prominent PubMed search in a study with clinical experts. Our search engine, dataset and code are publicly available at https://covidmechanisms.apps.allenai.org/ .

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